Emotional
& Mental Health

Mental health is undeniably a fundamental pillar of daily functioning and wellbeing. Good mental is a state of mental wellbeing, helping us face life’s challenges and stresses, realise and make use of our abilities, learn, work, and contribute actively to our community. It is important in itself (it has intrinsic value) but also has practical significance, helping us function better (it has instrumental value). It is a basic human right and a core, inseparable part of health and wellbeing.

What is it?

Depression, or depressive disorder, is a common mental health condition characterized by persistent sadness, low mood, or loss of interest and pleasure in activities for an extended period of time. It may appear as ongoing depressed mood, such as sadness, irritability, emptiness, or loss of pleasure, and may be accompanied by cognitive, behavioural, or physical symptoms that significantly affect a person’s functioning.

Depression differs from ordinary mood fluctuations and can affect all areas of life, including relationships with family, friends, and the wider social environment. It may lead to difficulties at school, work, and in social functioning. It does not discriminate and can appear in anyone, although it is more common in women and in people who have experienced abuse, loss, or intense stress. It is estimated to affect about 4% of the global population (approximately 332 million people).

How psychotherapy can help

Psychotherapy is considered a first‑line treatment for depression while there is strong scientific evidence supporting its effectiveness (e.g., Munder et al., 2019). It offers a safe space where a person can identify, question, and modify negative thoughts and dysfunctional behaviours, understand how experiences and relationships influence mood, develop new coping and self‑care strategies, and strengthen support networks and the ability to manage difficult situations.

Modern therapeutic approaches often incorporate mindfulness techniques and strategies targeting specific symptoms, such as fatigue and insomnia. Gradually, the person learns to focus on the relationships and life events that influence their mood, strengthening communication, support networks, and the ability to navigate challenges. This process helps them regain clarity, energy, interest, and a more stable and supportive daily life.

What is it?

Anxiety disorders include conditions involving excessive fear and anxiety, accompanied by behavioural changes or disturbances that often become overwhelming and interfere with daily life. Fear arises in response to an immediate threat, bringing a surge of autonomic arousal and a strong drive to escape. Anxiety centres on anticipating future danger, showing up as muscle tension, vigilance, and cautious or avoidant behaviour. The two states often overlap, but they differ in timing and bodily response. Panic attacks are an intense form of fear and can appear within anxiety disorders as well as other psychological difficulties. Both fear and anxiety may temporarily lessen when someone avoids the situations that trigger them, even though this avoidance can reinforce the cycle over time.

Generalized anxiety (or generalized anxiety disorder) is a condition where anxiety is continuous and intense for many months, almost daily. A person may feel persistent worry, hard to control anxiety and excessive concern about multiple areas of life, such as family, health, finances, school, or work. It is often accompanied by symptoms such as muscle tension, restlessness or nervousness, heightened autonomic arousal, difficulty concentrating, irritability, and/or sleep difficulties. These symptoms can significantly affect and interfere with daily life, relationships, work, or studies. They are not due to another medical condition or the use of substances or medications affecting the nervous system.

A panic attack is a sudden episode of intense fear or apprehension, accompanied by the rapid onset of multiple physical and psychological symptoms. These may include rapid heartbeat, sweating, trembling, shortness of breath, a sense of choking, chest pain, dizziness, light-headedness, chills or hot flashes, tingling or numbness, and feelings of detachment from oneself or the environment. Panic attacks often involve fear of losing control, “going crazy,” or even dying. They may occur unexpectedly or be triggered by specific situations.

In health anxiety, a person may be excessively preoccupied with their health, either by repeatedly checking their body for signs of illness or by avoiding doctors and hospitals. This worry may last for months and change form over time.

How psychotherapy can help

Psychotherapy is an effective first choice for anxiety disorders and panic attacks. It provides a safe space where a person can understand what they are experiencing and learn ways to manage anxiety, worry, and physical symptoms.

Through therapy, a person can address generalized anxiety, panic attacks, excessive worry, and the physical symptoms that often accompany them. They can also receive support when health‑related anxiety becomes overwhelming and leads to repeated checks or frequent medical visits.

Therapy helps individuals recognize and change dysfunctional emotions, thoughts, and behaviours. This can reduce excessive anxiety, intense worry, and negative thinking, and improve the ability to manage physical symptoms such as rapid heartbeat, tension, or sleep difficulties. At the same time, it strengthens self‑confidence and the ability to cope with challenging situations.

According to a recent systematic review (Papola et al., 2024), Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT), third‑wave CBT approaches, and relaxation techniques are more effective than “treatment as usual” (i.e whatever care a person would normally receive, without adding anything new) in treating the acute phase of generalized anxiety disorder. Depending on a person’s needs, therapy may include cognitive restructuring, relaxation, psychoeducation about the nature of anxiety, monitoring of symptoms (physical, cognitive, and behavioural), and gradual exposure to anxiety‑provoking situations with coping‑skills practice. With consistent support, a person can regain control, reduce anxiety, and build a calmer, more functional, and balanced daily life.

What is it?

Obsessive thoughts are recurring, persistent, and intrusive thoughts, images, or impulses/ urges that “enter” the mind involuntarily. They often involve fears (e.g., fear of contamination or fear of harming someone), disturbing images, or thoughts that do not align with a person’s values. They are usually accompanied by anxiety and discomfort.

Obsessive‑Compulsive Disorder (OCD) occurs when these intrusive, anxiety‑provoking thoughts, images, or impulses are accompanied by compulsions. Obsessions are intrusive, unwanted thoughts, images, or urges that create anxiety. People usually try to ignore or neutralize them by performing compulsions. Compulsions are repetitive behaviours or mental acts carried out in response to an obsession, according to rigid rules, or to achieve a sense of “completeness.” For a diagnosis, these patterns must be time‑consuming, such as taking more than an hour a day or cause significant distress or interfere with personal, family, social, educational, or work life. The symptoms cannot be better explained by another medical condition or by the effects of substances or medication.

Obsessions and compulsions can consume significant time during the day, cause distress, and interfere with daily life, relationships, work, or studies. Unlike everyday “habits” or occasional checking behaviours (e.g., checking the door or the stove), OCD obsessions are unwanted, and compulsions do not bring pleasure, they are performed to reduce anxiety. Symptoms often intensify during stressful periods and may fluctuate over time.

How psychotherapy can help

Psychotherapy can help individuals recognize and better understand their emotions, thoughts, and behaviours, and gradually begin to change them. In therapy, a person learns to identify, examine and modify negative or dysfunctional thoughts and habits, and to practice accepting obsessions as thoughts rather than threats. At the same time, they gradually reduce the need for compulsions and learn to live meaningfully despite the symptoms, reducing the “power” these symptoms have over their behaviour.

A key step is learning to accept obsessive thoughts as thoughts, not as dangers. It is anticipated that when a person stops giving them power, compulsions begin to lose the control they once had over daily life. Research shows that cognitive‑behavioural approaches significantly reduce OCD symptoms and are strongly evidence‑based treatments (e.g., Storch et al., 2009). When combined with mindfulness techniques such as meditation and relaxation, therapy can help people manage anxiety, regain a sense of control, and strengthen the ability to live meaningfully even in the presence of symptoms. With consistent support and guidance, change is possible. A person can learn to live with greater freedom, presence, and authenticity, without obsessions dictating their life.

What is it?

Phobias are intense and “excessive” fears linked to specific objects, situations, or activities. A person may feel anxiety even at the thought of encountering what they fear, for example, certain animals, places, or situations. The fear can be so strong that the person may go to great lengths to avoid the feared object or situation, or endure it with extreme anxiety.

This anxiety can make it difficult for someone to behave naturally or feel like themselves. It may be accompanied by intense physical reactions such as sweating, rapid heartbeat, or breathing difficulties, and in some cases may escalate into panic attacks.

Research shows that phobias often develop through a combination of genetic and environmental factors. Sometimes they are linked to a very distressing first experience with the feared object or situation (e.g., an animal attack), but such an experience is not always necessary (e.g Czajkowski et al., 2012). There may be a family history of anxiety or other mental health difficulties, or the person may have experienced intense worry or discomfort in new situations during childhood. Symptoms may last for months and be severe enough to interfere with daily life.

A specific phobia is an intense fear of something (an object or situation) that is usually not truly dangerous. Examples include fear of flying (fear of crashing), fear of animals (fear of being bitten or attacked), fear of enclosed spaces (fear of being trapped), fear of heights (fear of falling), fear of tunnels (fear of collapse), or fear triggered by the sight of blood or injury.

People with specific phobias often recognize that their fear is greater than the actual danger but still struggle to control or overcome it. The fear may affect daily life at school, work, or home. If the feared object is easy to avoid, people may not seek help but sometimes they make major life or career decisions solely to avoid situations involving their fear.

Social phobia (or social anxiety disorder) is an intense fear or anxiety that arises in one or more social situations, such as social interactions/ talking with others, being observed while doing something (e.g., eating or drinking in public), or speaking in front of an audience. There is often a fear of negative evaluation, worry about appearing awkward, showing signs of anxiety, or being judged negatively. As a result, the person avoids these situations or endures them with significant anxiety and discomfort. Symptoms may last for months and be severe enough to affect daily life.

Agoraphobia is an intense fear or anxiety that occurs in situations where escape may be difficult or where help may not be available if needed. Such situations may include using public transportation, being in crowds, or leaving home alone (e.g., going to shops, theatres, or waiting in lines). The person may worry about experiencing something negative, such as a panic attack or other intense and embarrassing symptoms. As a result, they avoid these situations, face them only under certain conditions (e.g., with a trusted person), or endure them with extreme anxiety. Symptoms may last for months and significantly affect daily functioning.

How psychotherapy can help

Many people with a phobia don’t need formal treatment, and simply avoiding the thing they fear is often enough to keep symptoms under control. However, avoiding the feared situation isn’t always possible. In those cases, seeking professional support can help.

Psychotherapy can become a safe starting point for those struggling with phobias or social anxiety, a space where a person does not need to “hide” their fear but can explore it with understanding and without judgment.

Many people with phobias tend to show two behavioural patterns: relying excessively on others to feel safe, or systematically avoiding what they fear. Although these patterns often have roots in overprotective family environments, they do not have to define a person’s life forever.

In therapy, a person can experience a different kind of relationship: supportive but not overprotective, encouraging but not pressuring. This relationship helps them recognize the patterns that hold them back and take small, steady steps toward greater autonomy, confidence, and freedom. Depending on individual needs, therapy may help identify what maintains the fear, develop new ways of thinking and responding, gradually reduce anxiety, and face feared situations safely rather than avoiding them. This process supports the development of autonomy, self‑confidence, and emotional independence (e.g., Andrews, 1966).

Change doesn’t have to happen all at once. It often begins with small shifts in how a person thinks and responds, changes that, over time, create more freedom and less anxiety. As someone gradually learns to face what they fear rather than avoid it, life opens in new and more flexible ways.

What is it?

Bipolar Disorder is a mental health condition characterized by significant fluctuations in mood, energy levels, and activity that come and go over time. These changes can range from periods of very low mood (depressive episodes) to periods of elevated or irritable mood, increased energy, and heightened activity (manic or hypomanic episodes). These shifts can affect sleep, concentration, decision‑making, and daily functioning.

Mood regulation difficulties may also appear outside the context of Bipolar Disorders (BD). A person may experience intense emotional changes, difficulty stabilizing their mood, or rapid shifts in energy and motivation. These fluctuations can interfere with relationships, work, and overall wellbeing.

Bipolar disorders are grouped into three main types, each involving clear shifts in mood, energy, and activity levels, from manic highs to depressive lows.

• Bipolar I disorder involves full manic episodes lasting at least a week or severe enough to require hospital care. Depressive episodes usually occur as well, typically lasting two weeks or more. Some people experience mixed features, and having four or more episodes in a year is known as “rapid cycling”.
• Bipolar II disorder involves a pattern of depressive episodes and hypomanic episodes. Hypomania is less intense than full mania, and many people spend long periods in a persistent, low‑grade depressive state.
• Cyclothymic disorder (cyclothymia) involves ongoing fluctuations between hypomanic and depressive symptoms that are not strong or long enough to meet full episode criteria.

A fourth category, other specified or unspecified bipolar and related disorders, is used when symptoms don’t fit neatly into the three main types but still follow a bipolar pattern.

How psychotherapy can help

Psychotherapy plays a key role in managing bipolar depression and the difficulties that come with it. Research shows that, when combined with medication, psychological therapies can help delay or prevent new depressive episodes (Chiang & Miklowitz, 2023).

Psychotherapy provides a structured and supportive space to identify and understand mood patterns and triggers, develop strategies for emotional regulation and thus change troubling emotions, thoughts, and behaviours. Through therapy, individuals can learn to recognize early signs of mood changes, manage stress more effectively, and build routines that support stability.

Evidence‑based approaches such as Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT), Interpersonal and Social Rhythm Therapy (IPSRT), and mindfulness‑based interventions can help improve emotional awareness, strengthen coping skills, and support long‑term mood stability. Therapy also helps individuals navigate the impact of mood changes on relationships, work, and daily life, fostering greater balance and resilience. Although psychotherapy is not a panacea, it offers a meaningful space for support, understanding, and healing (e.g Chiang & Miklowitz, 2023).

What is it?

Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD) is a form of depression that follows a seasonal pattern, most commonly appearing during the autumn and winter months when daylight decreases. Symptoms may include low mood, reduced energy, increased sleep, changes in appetite (e.g being more hungry and eating more than usual), difficulty concentrating, and loss of interest in activities. Some people may also notice a brief lift in energy at the start of spring or summer.

SAD is linked to changes in biological rhythms, light exposure, and neurotransmitter regulation. Changes in daylight can shift brain chemicals such as melatonin and serotonin, which influence mood and sleep patterns (your circadian rhythm). It can significantly affect daily functioning, motivation, and overall wellbeing during specific times of the year.

People are more likely to develop SAD if they are female, younger, live far from the equator, or have a family history of depression, bipolar disorder, or SAD (Melrose, 2015). Treatments for SAD fall into four main groups, and they can be used on their own or together: light therapy, psychotherapy, antidepressant medication and vitamin D.

How psychotherapy can help

Psychotherapy can help individuals understand how seasonal changes affect their mood and develop strategies to manage symptoms. Evidence‑based approaches such as CBT can help challenge negative thought patterns, build healthier routines, and strengthen coping skills during vulnerable periods. Psychotherapy may also incorporate behavioural activation to plan enjoyable activities that counter the loss of interest common in winter or summer, lifestyle adjustments, and planning ahead for seasonal transitions. When symptoms are mild, lifestyle‑based programs that encourage healthier eating, more exercise, better stress management, staying socially connected, and spending more time outdoors can also be helpful (Melrose, 2015).

Combined with other interventions, such as light exposure strategies, psychotherapy can support individuals in maintaining stability and wellbeing throughout the year.

What is it?

In modern daily life, where demands keep increasing and time feels ever more limited, stress has become a common experience for many people. Acute stress can sometimes be helpful, it’s a natural reaction that boosts adrenaline and helps us stay focused and get things done. Chronic stress, however, is very different. It creates a constant sense of pressure and overload that slowly wears down both the body and the mind, affecting health, mood, and overall quality of life.

Over time, chronic stress can become exhausting. Chronic stress occurs when stressors persist over long periods without adequate recovery. It drains energy, weakens emotional resilience, and depletes mental resources. Research shows that long‑term stress is linked to serious health problems such as heart disease, depression, and obesity. It often shows up through physical symptoms (fatigue, insomnia, aches, changes in appetite), cognitive difficulties (foggy thinking, poor concentration), emotional fluctuations/ ups and downs, and behavioural changes like social withdrawal or increased use of substances. It can also contribute to conditions such as high blood pressure, anxiety disorders, depression, and various addictions. Despite this, many people living with ongoing stress don’t make lifestyle changes that could reduce it and protect their health.

We now know clearly that chronic stress is associated with many physical illnesses, including hypertension, heart disease, obesity and metabolic syndrome, type II diabetes, and arthritis. It is also linked to addictions involving alcohol, nicotine, medications (such as anxiolytics or painkillers), and behavioural addictions like overeating, gambling, or excessive internet use. Psychologically, it is connected to a wide range of difficulties, especially anxiety and mood disorders. The conditions most strongly tied to chronic stress include hypertension, depression, addictions, and anxiety disorders.

Work‑related stress may arise from high demands, limited control, interpersonal difficulties, or lack of support in the workplace, leading to burnout. Burnout is a state of emotional, physical, and mental exhaustion caused by prolonged stress, often accompanied by reduced motivation, feelings of ineffectiveness, and detachment. It can affect performance, motivation, and a person’s relationship with their job. Burnout is linked to reduced productivity and increased absenteeism. Health professionals and others in demanding roles often experience this intensely.

The World Health Organization describes burnout as a syndrome resulting from chronic workplace stress that has not been successfully managed. Although it is not a medical diagnosis per se, it can involve many symptoms such as physical fatigue, sleep problems, emotional exhaustion, loss of motivation, reduced performance, anxiety, depression, and psychological strain. It is characterised by three main components: (1) a sense of exhaustion or lack of energy, (2) increased mental distance from one’s work or feelings of negativity or cynicism and (3) reduced professional effectiveness. These conditions can affect concentration, sleep, physical health, relationships, and overall quality of life. They may also lead to irritability, fatigue, decreased performance, and a sense of being overwhelmed.

Health professionals, in particular, are especially vulnerable to burnout because of the unique stressors they face. Long working hours, poor work–life balance, and a lack of support or recognition combine with systemic problems such as understaffing, heavy patient loads, and administrative pressures. In some situations, they may even be forced to act in ways that conflict with their personal or professional values—for example, limiting care because resources are insufficient. These conditions can lead to emotional exhaustion, a sense of detachment from patients and work, and a growing desire to leave the profession (Tang et al., 2025).

How psychotherapy can help

Psychotherapy offers a space to explore the sources of stress, understand personal patterns of coping, and develop healthier strategies for managing pressure. Through therapy, individuals can learn to set boundaries, improve communication, and cultivate self‑care practices that support long‑term wellbeing. Talking openly about personal experiences can also ease the load. Having space to express what feels overwhelming and having someone acknowledge that the situation is genuinely difficult can make the process feel more manageable.

Evidence‑based approaches such as CBT, stress‑management techniques, and mindfulness‑based interventions can help reduce tension, improve emotional regulation, and restore balance. Therapy also supports individuals in reconnecting with their values, strengthening resilience, and rebuilding a sense of purpose and satisfaction in daily life.